| |
|
|
1. |
The tradition of keeping elephants in
captivity by the ethnic tribes in Assam: a uniquely
subaltern culture |
| |
Dr. Kushal Konwar Sarma |
| |
India’s North East, particularly the
state of Assam, is one of the last bastions of the Asian
elephant, where, about 5000 of these magnificent beasts
still roam the wildernesses of lush tropical forests and
grasslands. But what is perhaps even more heartening is
that no less than 2000 of their brethren continue to
thrive in captivity under the benign care of their human
masters who have come to regard them as ones belonging
to their own families. This is in no small measure a
legacy of a rich tradition of keeping elephants in
captivity by the inhabitants of this region that goes
back centuries. Sources explicitly illustrate the
practices and traditions of keeping elephants in
captivity by the regions royalty and elite down the
ages. But what these source materials have failed to
reveal is a parallel and distinctly different tradition
of keeping elephants in captivity by certain ethnic
tribes of this region, namely the Misings, Morans,
Singphos of eastern Assam and the Ravas residing in the
central western areas of the state. This paper is a
pioneering attempt at documenting and illustrating this
venerable and uniquely subaltern culture and bringing
their efforts and experiences to the attention of the
mainstream discourse on the management of Asian
elephants in captivity. |
| |
The first section of this paper traces
the origins of this unique culture and briefly recounts
how this man-elephant relationship has evolved over the
ages that have made elephants an indispensable part of
the life and livelihood of these tribal communities. The
next section of this paper focuses on the dynamics of
the culture and practices as it exists today. The third
section discusses in detail the various aspects of the
actual practices as practiced by these tribal
communities while managing their elephants. The fourth
and the last section of this paper analyses the benefits
of these practices, both visible as well as those not
readily visible and draw certain significant
conclusions. The paper is however, by no means
exhaustive. Rather, it is a pioneering step towards a
more systematic and comprehensive study of a culture
that is a repository of knowledge in management of Asian
elephants in captivity. |
| |
Back to top |
| |
|
|
2. |
Human–elephant relationships in Sri Lanka
during the past: a historical and archaeological
perspective |
| |
Dhanesh Wisumperuma |
| |
Prehistoric sites provide evidence in the
form of bone and teeth remains and rock art. These are
the fragile remains of any kind of association of
elephants and humans of prehistoric age humans. But the
relationship was primitive and limited, both of the
prehistoric people and Veddahs. During the historical
period, this relationship grows in various ways giving
the elephant an important role among the human society.
The animal was used as a multi purpose animal, for
instance as a state animal, a war animal, a beast of
burden and also an item of trade. This usage developed a
well developed science on elephants, and expert taming
technologies and successful elephant medical system.
Historical records like the chronicles and
archaeological evidence such as artefacts like murals,
inscriptions, paintings etc. provide evidence for this.
In art and architecture the animal is used quite widely.
The animal was also a vital figure in the culture and
beliefs too. |
| |
The relationship between the elephant and
humans was complex and varied with wider usage of the
animal during the past. The usages of the animal were
wide and various but there are no sufficient evidence to
suggest that it affected significantly on the elephant
population. Although during the colonial times the trade
of elephants increased, human elephant conflict was seen
during at least in the Kotte and Kandy periods. But it
did not affect to the population of elephants, until the
moving and escalating of population to the southern
parts of the country began. |
| |
Back to top |
| |
|
|
3. |
Mela Shikar: a dying art… |
| |
Bijoyananda Chowdhury |
| |
This paper is a reflection of the
longstanding, traditional history of the human-elephant
relationship in association with the domestication of
the Asian elephant. It also examines the interaction
between the Asian elephant and their mahouts/phandis,
the elephant handlers belonging to the North Eastern
region of the Indian sub-continent, in context to “ Mela
Shikar” – the oldest classical method of capturing and
training wild elephants. |
| |
Although elephant management has
continued to evolve, unlike the other South Asian
countries, which are trying to revive their lost culture
of domesticating elephants, in India many of these
useful practices have been lost and it can be
ascertained that the present elephant conservation
scenario seems to be moving away from these traditions. |
| |
Besides discussing the glorious past of
these traditional methods of capture and the actual
training methods and procedures involved, this paper
also provides an insight to the expectations,
aspirations and ideas of the traditional elephant
handlers, a rare and dying breed. |
| |
Back to top |
| |
|
|
4. |
Human-elephant
relationships and conflicts |
| |
Chow Chiya Seng Maunglang |
| |
As per the estimated
population of wild elephants – 2001 are over 9000.
Arunachal – 1607; Assam – 5312, Meghalaya – 1840;
Nagaland – 147; Mizoram – 28; Manipur
– 10-15; Tripura – 30-50 and West Bengal (North) – 292.
Besides wild elephants the north east has considerable
nos. of domesticated elephants. |
| |
We have all kinds of
problems in this region – poaching (for ivory and meat),
death of elephants by railways, death of elephants by
electrocution, death of elephants by poisoning
(retaliatory). There are also case of human deaths
caused by elephants. There are various factors leading
to these human-elephant conflicts and thereby affecting
their relationships. To mention few of the existing
problems (in brief):- |
| |
Pressure on available land
(forests) due to increase in population and various
developmental activities.After the ban on logging in
1996 by the Supreme Court, the timber industry collapsed
affecting the economic utility of the domesticated
elephants. |
| |
Elephant owners-elephants relationships
became more strenuous as it became an economic liability
to the owners.In absence of vigorous elephant
conservation activities and alternate economic
activities for the elephant and their owners overall
conservation has not been effective.Due to lack of
economic difficulties elephants are sold mostly to south
and northern states. But due to change in habitat the
survival of the elephants become the major issues etc.
etc. |
| |
Back to top |
| |
|
|
5. |
Captive elephants and human conflicts in Kerala |
| |
K.C. Panicker.,
Jacob.V.Cheeran, K.R.Kaimal. K.N. Muraleedaran Nair,
G. Ajitkumar. T.S. Rajeev and Menon Raju
Madhavan |
| |
Situations of conflicts between captive
elephants and human communities in Kerala were analysed.
Following capture, the elephants were subjected to
various rigorous training methods using sharp or pointed
objects and restrainments by inexperienced mahouts. The
captive elephants were found to exhibit some wild
instincts throughout their lifetime. Tamed elephants
usually obeyed to the various commands mainly with a
fear of pain and rough handling but some elephants had a
habit of expressing dislikeness or irritations to
certain mahouts and owners without any provocation
especially in the absence of restrainments . The second
and third mahouts and Vakka (rope) tying individual were
the main victims of attacks by the elephants. The
elephants showed unpleasant attitude to drunken people
and policemen in kakki uniform. During the pre-musth and
post-musth periods, large numbers of elephant were
become aggressive especially in the absence of
restrainments. Many mahouts were gored, injured
seriously and killed brutally. The corpse of the victims
were guarded or mutilated or macerated beyond
identification probably with a revenge attitude. Very
few elephants were found to be docile and affectionate
in behaviour to certain individuals or owners who were
attending them regularly without provocation and
offering favorite feeds and expressing good words.
Generally behaviour of most of the captive elephants was
found to be unpredictable in many occasions. |
| |
Back to top |
| |
|
|
6. |
Endangered species? Not if we can help it |
| |
John Kirtland, Catherine Ort-Mabry, and
Gary Jacobson |
| |
In May 2002, the Ringling Bros. and
Barnum & Bailey® Center for Elephant Conservation (CEC)
celebrated the birth of a healthy, 270 pound male Asian
elephant calf. This calf was the fifteenth birth in
Ringling Bros.’ ten-year-old breeding program and an
unprecedented fifth birth in just 13 months. The CEC’s
unparalleled success in captive breeding is testimony to
the advancement of the science of elephant
reproduction. Working in cooperation with some of the
world’s leading experts, the CEC stands at the forefront
of efforts to deliver constant improvement through
state-of-the-art technology and daily care for pregnant
elephants and their ultimate offspring. A facility able
to maintain large numbers of elephants, including
multiple males; a knowledgeable and experienced animal
care staff; and a progressive veterinary program have
all combined to make the Ringling Bros.’ breeding
program the most successful in North America. At a time
when the future of the elephant throughout Asia is
precarious at best, breeding programs such as this may
be the last best hope that the Asian elephant will
survive into the 21st Century and beyond. |
| |
Back to top |
| |
|
|
7. |
Estimating population sizes and
demographic parameters for forest elephants using DNA
extracted from dung |
| |
Lori S. Eggert |
| |
Despite conservation efforts, forest
habitat continues to be lost and/or fragmented due to
logging, farming, and mining. These activities often
result in conflict between humans and the wild species
whose ranges have been impacted. When elephants are
involved, that conflict may be deadly. For elephant
populations to persist alongside expanding human
populations, management will become increasingly
important. |
| |
Effective management requires data on
population size, sex ratio, age structure and genetic
variation. Since it is difficult to see elephants in
dense vegetation, population sizes can only be estimated
using indirect methods. The most commonly used method
is the dung count, which relates elephant number to a
count of dungpiles detected along transects, corrected
for variables such as the deposition rate, decay rate,
and rainfall in the two months before the count. While
some have questioned the accuracy of these methods, it
has been shown that they give population size estimates
as precise as aerial surveys. Nevertheless, they tell
us nothing about the sex ratio, age structure, and
genetic variation of forest elephant populations. |
| |
Using multilocus genotyping of
non-invasively collected samples, I performed a genetic
"census" on the forest elephant population at Kakum
National Park, Ghana, and on the forest/savanna
transition zone population at Parc National de la
Marahoué, Côte d'Ivoire. For each of these, population
size, sex ratio, and genetic variability were estimated
directly from the data, and that information was
compared with field observations to divide the
population into age groups. At Kakum, the results of
the genetic census and independently performed dung
counts could be compared directly. The genetic
population size estimate was very close to that obtained
using dung counts performed in both the wet and dry
seasons. |
| |
Back to top |
| |
|
|
8. |
An assessment of the genetic population
structure of the Asian elephant in Sri Lanka by
mitochondrial DNA sequence analysis |
| |
Maya B. Gunasekera, Himesha Vandebona &
W.D. Ratnasooriya |
| |
The Asian elephant is a globally
threatened species and has been placed on the red list
of endangered species. The elephant population in Sri
Lanka, estimated to be 4,000, is currently fragmented
and restricted mainly to a few elephant reserves. A
proper understanding of the genetic population structure
of the elephant in Sri Lanka is essential for its
conservation and management. This study aimed at
assessing the genetic population structure of the
elephants of Sri Lanka with regard to geographic
population structure and levels of genetic variability.
The genetic variability was analyzed in two
mitochondrial genes, NADH dehydrogenase subunit 5 (ND 5)
and cytochrome b (Cyt b) by polymerase chain reaction
amplification of elephant DNA using universal primers.
The sequence divergence in these two genes in 67 samples
of the Asian elephant in 3 geographic regions of Sri
Lanka, Northern, Mahaweli and Southern, was analysed by
this study. Analysis of sequence polymorphisms
identified 12 polymorphic sites from Cyt b gene data
defining 5 mtDNA haplotypes. ND 5 gene data revealed 9
polymorphic sites and 5 mtDNA haplotypes. Combined
analysis of the two genes yielded seven distinct ND
5-Cyt b mtDNA haplotypes. Phylogenetic analysis of
these haplotypes revealed the presence of one haplotype
(T3M6) well separated from the rest with a mean sequence
divergence of 1.61 Interestingly, all the elephants
who participated either as lead elephants in traditional
cultural pageants or led herds in captivity, were found
to be of T3M6 type, the haplotype also closest in
sequence to the African elephant. Within Sri Lanka, the
sequence divergence among regions was small and did not
suggest a long-term divergence into regional
subpopulations. Genetic variability was high in all
analysed regions indicating that the present elephant
population is not threatened by genetic factors such as
loss of diversity and/or inbreeding. However,
significant geographic substructure was observed with
regard to haplotype frequencies, and this may indicate a
genetic effect due to habitat fragmentation. |
| |
Back to top |
| |
|
|
9. |
Molecular genetic structure of Asian
elephant (Elephas maximus) populations in
southern India |
| |
TNC Vidya, Prithiviraj Fernando, Don J
Melnick and Raman Sukumar |
| |
Asian elephant (Elephas maximus)
range has declined considerably over the last two
millennia, and is presently limited to fragments of the
former range. We present the first population genetic
study of the Asian elephant across its range in southern
India, which holds about one fourth of the global
population. We examined differentiation within- and
among- populations of free-ranging elephants using
mitochondrial control region sequence and six
microsatellite loci amplified from dung-extracted DNA.
Low mitochondrial diversity, and low to moderate
microsatellite diversity were observed. The Nilgiri
population was distinct at both mitochondrial and
microsatellite loci from the two more southern
populations, Anamalai and Periyar, which were not
differentiable genetically. Thus the Palghat Gap, which
separates the Nilgiris from the southern populations,
may represent a phylogeographic barrier. There was also
differential loss of mitochondrial diversity compared to
nuclear diversity in the Nilgiri population. No strong
sub-structuring was observed in the Nilgiri population,
and this has conservation implications in terms of
maintaining the contiguity of the reserve. |
| |
Back to top |
| |
|
|
10. |
Conservation genetic analysis of the Asian elephant: a
range-wide study |
| |
Fernando Prithiviraj, Vidya TNC†,
Linda S.G. Ng and Don J. Melnick |
| |
The Asian elephant is currently limited
to the South and Southeast Asian mainland and the
islands of Sri Lanka, Sumatra and Borneo. For our
study, we sampled over 600 individuals representing 10
of the 13 countries with Asian elephants. PCR
amplification and sequencing of a mtDNA fragment
including part of the D loop, and analysis of 5 nuclear
microsatellite loci were used to study phylogeographic
patterns, population subdivision and identification of
unique populations. Asian elephant populations were
largely subdivided and heavily influenced by isolation,
divergence and secondary contact due to Pleistocene
glaciations. Current Sunda shelf populations and the
South Indian population could be genetically
distinguished from other populations. The
distinctiveness of the Sunda populations suggest their
recognition as unique Evolutionary Significant Units (ESU).
The highest diversity was observed in Sri Lanka and may
indicate a Pleistocene isolation of elephant populations
in the island. |
| |
Back to top |
| |
|
|
11. |
The visual, tactile and acoustic signals of play in
African savanna elephants |
| |
Joyce H. Poole |
| |
Elephants are intelligent, highly social animals and
their complex behaviour has been the subject of
intensive investigation for more than three decades.
Surprisingly, however, the subject of play has received
very little attention. Play behavior is most developed
in species with complex nervous systems, sensory
apparatus and behavioral mechanisms whose behavioral
repertoire is not fully established at birth. We should,
therefore, expect to find play behaviour in elephants to
be both well developed and highly varied. This paper
does not attempt to explain the functional significance
or usefulness of play to elephants, but rather describes
the different visual, tactile and acoustic signals
associated with play in various contexts in African
savanna elephants. Elephant play behavior comes in many
forms including superfluous activities with exaggerated
movements, aimless exploration, manipulation and object
play, practice play, inappropriate responses to the
wrong object and social play. Elephant play ranges from
gentle to vigorous and may be undertaken alone, or with
conspecifics, inanimate objects or other species.
Elephant play is associated with specific postures and
acoustic signals. While the primary participants are
calves and juveniles, adults also engage in play. If
novel behavioral and cultural differences exist between
elephants these may be more likely to occur in behaviour
such as play that is not under strong evolutionary
pressure for survival. |
| |
Back to top |
| |
|
|
12. |
Can community solutions help? Experiences in developing
a “toolbox” |
| |
Ganesh Doluweera, Sanchitha Fernando, Chandana
Gunasekera, Arjuna Madanayake, Greg Rossel, Lalith
Seneviratne and Sasiri Yapa |
| |
Lack of unity and community spirit is a major impediment
to development and conservation in human-elephant
conflict areas. Yet, there is not enough investigation
of adapting technologically appropriate solutions that
can be community owned and maintained to solve some of
the pressing needs in such areas and enhance the
community spirit. Elephant Detection Project’s
experience so far, in developing a “toolbox” of direct
and indirect sustainable solutions will be discussed in
this presentation. We chose two primary areas that best
suit our skills and interest and that are urgent needs
of the people and environment – Developing Rural
Electrification Systems for villages and Non-intrusive
Protection Systems against crop raiding elephants. The
protection systems, being of direct relevance to the
symposium will be presented, with an overview only of
electrification. |
| |
The presentation will concentrate on
successes, failures and pitfalls encountered in
developing several protection systems. The protection
systems started with early experiments in seismic, laser
and optical based elephant detection, and finally led to
a simple tripwire detection method. The installation (or
implementation) of a tripwire system will be explained.
An analysis of its performance supported by data from
the field as well as the opinions of the farmers who use
this method will be presented. The formidable
intelligence of the elephant as demonstrated by the
tactics it uses to circumvent the system and how the
system can be enhanced to beat such tactics will be
discussed. Electrification using renewable energy and
some of the models developed and deployed will be
discussed in brief, as an attractive community unity
building method that indirectly helps conservation. |
| |
Back to top |
| |
|
|
13. |
The development of sexually dimorphic chemotactile
behavior in African elephants |
| |
Helen Loizi, Maureen Correll, Amy Gray,
Thomas Goodwin, L.E.L. Rasmussen and Bruce A. Schulte |
| |
Chemical and tactile signals play
important roles in social organization and reproductive
interactions for Asian and African elephants. Male and
female elephants are born into a matriarchal society but
receive dissimilar levels of maternal investment and
exhibit different behavioral patterns. Reproductive
development is physiological comparable but socially
divergent. Females begin calving in their early teens
while males, although producing sperm as this same age,
are unlikely to sire offspring until their mid to late
twenties. Because chemotactile communication plays such
an integral role in social and reproductive development,
we examined the rate and degree of development for these
modes of communication in African elephants. We
hypothesized that young males would show greater levels
of chemotactile behavior than similarly aged females.
In addition, we proposed that females would show
refinement of chemotactile behaviors to reflect the
adult condition at an earlier age than males. Our study
was conducted in Addo Elephant National Park South
Africa with a population of over 350 identified
elephants. We recorded activity patterns and
chemotactile behaviors from elephants ranging in age
from less than one year to over 45 years. As with
previous studies, male elephants exhibited greater
levels of movement than females even at an early age.
We will discuss the development of chemotactile
behaviors. Understanding behavioral development and
sexual dimorphism in communication can improve our
ability to manage elephants and thereby ameliorate
human-elephant relations. |
| |
Back to top |
| |
|
|
14. |
A newly described set of pheromonal
messages by male Asian elephants in musth |
| |
L.E.L. Rasmussen, David R. Greenwood &
Heidi S. Riddle |
| |
Musth is an important male phenomenon
affecting many aspects of elephant society including
reproduction. During musth, the temporal gland
secretions (as well as the urine and breath) of socially
adult and physically mature male Asian elephants (Elephas
maximus) discharge a variety of malodorous compounds
together with the bicyclic ketal, frontalin. In
contrast, young males during short “moda” musths release
sweet-smelling compounds. We have demonstrated that the
concentration of frontalin becomes increasingly evident
as male elephants mature and that behaviors exhibited
towards frontalin are consistent and dependent on the
sex, developmental stage, and physiological status of
the responding conspecific individual. Concurrent
behavioral and chemical studies of individual wild and
captive elephants demonstrate that moda males are
curious about, but often highly reactive, exhibiting
repulsion or avoidance toward : (1) older, secreting
musth males, (2) samples of collected temporal gland
secretion (TGS) from older males, and (3) frontalin
samples. Conversely moda males, or their sweet exudates,
elicit little response from older males and adult males
were mostly indifferent to frontalin. Female elephants
in the wild and in captivity are indifferent to moda
males but responsive (dependent on their hormonal and
reproductive status) chemosensorily and behaviorally
toward adult males, their temporal gland secretions or
frontalin. In captive studies, female chemosensory
responses to frontalin varied with hormonal state.
Females in the luteal phase demonstrated low frequencies
of responses, whereas pregnant females responded
significantly more frequently, with varied types of
responses. Females in the follicular phase were the most
responsive and often demonstrated mating-related
behaviors subsequent to high chemosensory responses to
frontalin. Our molecular studies are demonstrating that
elephant albumin, a protein playing a perireceptive
olfactory role as the initial transporter of the
preovulatory pheromone, Z-7-dodecenyl acetate,
also complexes with the TGS pheromone, frontalin,
strongly suggesting a similar transport role. The
importance of such transporters in the lifetime and
actions of the pheromones of Asian elephants is
discussed. We acknowledge the
substantial contribution in parts of this study of the
late Dr. V. Krishnamurthy. |
| |
Back to top |
| |
|
|
15. |
Observations and implications of measurement, size, and
growth comparisons of Sumatran vs. Mainland Asian
elephants |
| |
Hank Hammatt and Drh Yudha Farima |
| |
Captive Sumatran elephants (Riau
Province) grow at much slower rates compared to
published data for mainland Asian elephants. Most
captive Sumatran elephants are also immature and in what
should be the faster growing stages of their lives.
Most captive Sumatran elephants are held in six
government administered Elephant Training Centers (ETC’s).
Implications of these findings are discussed. |
| |
Additional observations are noted from 3
years of field work with Sumatran elephants. Data is
offered to support a hypothesis that wild
Sumatran elephants on average may not be smaller than
mainland elephants. |
| |
The implications of the observations are
threefold. First, captive Sumatran ETC elephants (~
400) comprise 10-20% of the total Sumatran elephant
population. The long term consequences of low growth
rates, especially among a high population of young
elephants in the prime growing ages, are unknown.
Further study of growth rates throughout captive
Sumatran populations and analysis of underlying causes
is needed. Inadequate nutrition of captive elephants
has been cited (Krishnamurthy, 1993 and others) and
although this is the most likely cause, intestinal and
blood parasites may be confounding factors. Policy
changes and/or international support may be essential to
reverse this trend. |
| |
Second, koonkie elephants for
human-elephant mitigation must be strong and fit (and
well-trained). Most Sumatran ETC’s lack sufficient
koonkie elephants. Slow growth rates are contributory.
Third, from data on recently captured wild elephants,
and age and growth data of captives, either younger
elephants are more frequently captured or fewer adult
elephants survive the capture and training process. |
| |
Back to top |
| |
|
|
16. |
Elephant social organization |
| |
M.D. Gunawardene, L.K.A. Jayasinghe, P.
Fernando, D.K. Weerakoon, and E. Wickramanayake |
| |
We report on studies conducted on the
social organization of female elephant groups in the
Ruhuna National Park and a comparative study of male
social organization in Ruhuna and Uda Walawe National
Parks. Elephants were observed opportunistically and
individuals identified based on morphological
characters. In Yala, location of elephants was
facilitated by radio telemetry. Identified individuals
were photographed, assigned names, and built up a
catalogue of images. We have so far identified and
catalogued 176 individual elephants in Block I of Ruhuna
National Park, including 46 adult females, and 74
juveniles. |
| |
The study in Yala logged over 500 hours
of observations in 846 encounters within a period of 30
months. The social structure of female elephants in RNP
block I was limited to the family group. Higher levels
of social organization were not observed. While several
family groups shared ranges, they were socially
exclusive. Association between adult females within a
family group was fluid and no strong coalitions were
observed within a family group. There was no evidence of
a strong matriarchal leadership as described for African
savannah elephants. The social structure suggested by
our observational data was confirmed by genetic studies. |
| |
In a comparative study of male social
organization in Ruhunu and Uda Walawe National Parks,
respectively 56 and 78 males were individually
identified and catalogued. While male grouping was very
rare in Ruhunu National Park, the mean group size of
encountered males in Uda Walawe was 3.3. Group size did
not appear to be related to changes in rainfall, water
or food availability. Male groups were largely transient
and no strong social bonds were observed between
associating males. A higher tendency in grouping was
observed in animals in size classes corresponding to
young-adults and subadults. |
| |
Back to top |
| |
|
|
17. |
Ranging behavior and habitat use of elephants in Sri
Lanka |
| |
D.K. Weerakoon, M.D. Gunawardene, H.K.
Janaka, L.K.A. Jayasinghe, R.A.R. Perera, P. Fernando,
and E. Wickramanayake |
| |
We have studied the ranging behavior of
18 elephants in north-west and south-east Sri Lanka (6
males & 12 females) over a period of 8 years, using VHF
radio telemetry. Locations of collared animals were
identified using triangulation and homing methods.
Elephant home ranges showed a similar pattern in
north-west and south-east Sri Lanka with home range
extents of males ranging from 53.6 - 346 km2
and females from 29.6 -160.7 km2. Elephants
showed high fidelity to home ranges. |
| |
No distinct seasonal ranges with long
distance migrations between them were observed for any
of the tracked animals. The musth range of males was
much greater than the non-musth range. The relationship
of home ranges to protected areas varied from being
situated entirely within protected areas, entirely
outside or partly in and outside protected areas. A
trend of increasing home range size with increasing
fragmentation was observed in elephants that ranged in
landscapes with high levels of human activity. The
ranging pattern of female elephants whose home range
included both protected and non-protected areas appeared
to be influenced by cultivation patterns. |
| |
Thus our findings indicate
that in Sri Lanka, Elephants prefer disturbed habitat,
and areas with slash and burn cultivation are important
dry season foraging areas. This was confirmed by
studies on elephant use of buffer zone areas in Yala. |
| |
Home range extents of elephants in Sri
Lanka were much smaller than in southern India and they
did not undertake long distance migrations. Genetic
studies have confirmed that this pattern of ranging was
not created by ‘recent’ developments. |
| |
Back to top |
| |
|
|
18. |
Field study to trace the mobility
patterns and population dynamics of elephants (Elephas
maximus maximus ) in the Uda Walawe national park |
| |
Srilal Miththapala |
| |
The elephants within the Uda Walawe
National Park (UWNP) were monitored through visual
observations and photo identification for approximately
10 continuous months during 2001/2001. The objective was
to determine the herd composition, dynamics and mobility
patterns of the elephants within the park. |
| |
At the outset of the study, an accurate
map of the entire park road network was generated using
a GPS. The park was then divided into six zones. Visual
observations, supported by digital photographs and video
were made according to a pre-determined schedule. |
| |
A total of 166 visits were made during
the study period, for a total of 11,869 sightings of
elephants. Of these 2,561 were adult males, 2,311 adult
females, 780 sub adults (sex undetermined), 1,161
juveniles, and 490 infants . A total of 82 individuals
(54 male and 28 females) were identified and in most
cases photo catalogued. |
| |
From the available data it appears that
there is greater abundance of elephants in park during
the months of September, October and November. Because
observations were made along the road network, and
visibility remained relatively constant, sampling biases
due to seasonal differences in vegetation were
discounted. Sightings ranged from individual elephants
and small herds, to large, multiple herd aggregations
of 50-100animals. The preferred areas were the central
and eastern areas of the park. The northern most end of
the park did not yield too many sightings but evidence
of dung indicated that there were movements of elephants
in this area, utilizing it possibly as a crossing point,
out of the park. |
| |
Back to top |
| |
|
|
19. |
Demography and population parameters of Rajaji NP
elephant population, northwest India |
| |
A.Christy Williams |
| |
Detailed studies on demography, ranging,
elephant-tree interaction and elephant human conflict
was investigated in detail in the area of Rajaji
National Park, Dehradun, Shivalik and Haridwar forest
divisions located between the rivers Yammuna in the west
and River Ganges in the east in north-west India between
1996 to 2002. Identified adult male elephants were used
in a mark-resight method to estimate the male segment of
the population and the number of female and associated
young was estimated using their proportions relative to
the adult male segment from the classification data.
Data on inter-calving period, calf survival etc., were
collected from adult females present in the groups
having radio-collared females. The number of adult males
in the study area was estimated to be 31 (95 % CI =
23-41) in the study area. We computed the relative
proportions of other age-sex classes to the adult males
and estimated 188 elephants (95 % CI = 139-248) in the
intensive study area. Ninety percent of the adult males
were tuskers and the adult male to adult female ratio
was 1 male: 1.87 females (Data analysed upto May 1999).
This is one of the least skewed sex ratios reported for
Asian elephants and is comparable to areas in Sri Lanka
where 95% of males are tuskless. Greater than 90% of the
adult females were accompanied by a young one less than
five years old. We estimated the inter-calving period to
be around 4.23 years from following 19 adult females for
over two years and the calf survival over the first year
was almost 100%. The only calf, which died, was run over
by a train. Subsequent observations of the collared
females suggest that the inter-calving period is
probably closer to 4 years. The high proportion of
males, low inter-calving period and high neonate
survival of the Rajaji elephant population indicates
that the population is demographically very healthy.
However, more elephants died in train accidents than due
to natural causes and mathematical models of future
population trends indicate that the population's chance
of extinction will increase significantly if losses to
train accidents increase. |
| |
Back to top |
| |
|
|
20. |
Comparison of the extent and intensity of
conflicts between people, elephants and other wildlife
in Songea rural district, southern Tanzania |
| |
DG Mpanduji, R Hahn, L Siege, RD Baldus,
TB Hildebrandt, F Goeritz, ML East, H Hofer |
| |
This study was conducted between July
2000 and October 2001 and aimed to assess the extent of
crop damage by African elephants in comparison to other
causes of crop damage in Songea Rural District (SRD),
southern Tanzania, East Africa. Reports of crop damage
from the village meetings and district annual reports
were evaluated. Crop raiding by wildlife was claimed to
be common and a cause of a significant reduction of crop
yield. Crops are prone to raiding by wild animals
throughout the year, and several wildlife species are
involved. Significant damage by elephants and other
large game species such as hippo, buffalo, sable
antelope was also claimed. In contrast to these claims,
analysis of the various reports on the extent of crop
damage caused by each category of crop raiders indicated
little involvement by elephants. For the past eleven
years, a total of 137,868 ha of land were cultivated.
During this time period, a total of 34,523 ha of
cultivated land were damaged. In total, large game
species contributed to only 0.5% (170 ha) of the total
area of damaged crops, of which elephant contributed
0.3% (105 ha), hippo 0.1% (34 ha), buffalo 0.01% (4.5
ha) and other ungulates 0.08% (26.5 ha). The majority of
crop damage (99.5%, 34,353 ha) was caused by insects,
rodents, birds and other small “pest” species, diseases
and weeds. Despite the small amount of damage caused by
larger game species, crop protection measures executed
by the District Game Officer, his staff or by the
village game scouts were mainly directed towards
elephants and other large mammals. During the past
eleven years, SRD reported to have killed a total of 33
and wounded 9 further elephants during crop protection
measures. As the majority of crop loss is not due to
elephants, crop production would be increased if more
efforts towards preventing crop damage were focused on
the control of pests, weeds and diseases. Where
possible, alternative methods of dealing with the
problem of elephants and other large game species should
be evaluated and put into practise to ensure the
protection of elephants in this part of Tanzania. |
| |
Back to top |
| |
|
|
21. |
Human elephant relationships and
conflicts in Kerala state, India |
| |
Saseendran.P.C Jayson, E.A and
Anil, K.S. |
| |
A study was conducted to assess the human
elephant relationship and conflicts in Kerala state,
India utilizing the fund and infrastructure of the
Kerala forest department and Kerala Agricultural
University. Data on human elephant conflict were
collected from the 28 forest divisions of the state.
Crop damage, lifting or killing of farm animals, death
and injury to humans were identified as the main
conflict between wild animals and man. In twenty
selected forest divisions the percentage of crop damage
by the wild animals ranged from 0-55%. The five high
crop damaged area were Kalpetta (55%), Agasthyavanam
(39%), Palode (38%), Shendurany (33%) and
Kurichaat(32%). Elephant, Wild boar, Gaur, Sambar,
Bonnet macaca, common langur, barking deer, Mouse deer,
black necked hare, malabar giant squirrel and peafowl
were identified as the main crop raiders. Elephant and
wild boar did the maximum damage. State has given Rs
0.87million as compensation for crop damage against the
claim of 1.06 million Rs during the 1985-1993 period in
the above divisions. The northern wayward division used
up more than 60% of the total compensation paid. A total
of 31 deaths and 64 injuries to human beings and two
cases of house damage were reported during the period of
1983 to 1993. Elephant were involved in 30 human deaths
during the period, in which 27 due to herds and 3 due to
solitary tuskers. Forest department has given
0.295million rupees compensation against the claim of
2.06million rupees. The data were collected during the
period between the 1994-2003 and compared with the
1985-93 period. In the last 3years 30 to 40 wild
elephants in Ranni forest division and one captive
elephant in owners premises were died due to poaching.
The relationship between captive elephants and human
being has been very cordial over the years. In the last
two years there was an increase of the population of
captive elephants from 500 to 750. There used to be
about 50 incidences of tranquilization and control of
misbehaved elephants every year in the state. In the
current year more that 7 mahouts lost their life due to
the unruly elephants, which indicate for more detailed
study on the human elephant relationship. |
| |
Back to top |
| |
|
|
22. |
Human-elephant relationships and conflicts in eastern
Nepal |
| |
Babu Ram Yadav |
| |
The following issues of conflict between humans and wild
elephant in eastern Nepal have been dealt in this
thesis: numbers, distribution and movement of elephants,
crop raiding, property loss, and human casualties by
elephants and elephant killing. Five districts in
eastern Nepal and one district in India were selected
for the movement and migration of wild elephants.
Bahundangi Village Development Committee (BVDC) in Jhapa
was selected for crop damage assessment. Out of 9 Wards
of BVDC, 8 Wards were selected for a household survey.
Three sets of questionnaire were distributed among
farmers (n = 333), institutions (n = 20) and
international students (n = 17). |
| |
Direct field observations and meetings
were conducted to identify the movement of elephants and
management policy issues in the study areas. Regression
analysis, Paired t-tests and Chi-square tests were
carried out to analyse the data. Two herds, one big and
another small herd of elephants were identified. The
numbers of the small and big herds were 10-13 and 50-74,
respectively. The big herd was raiding in BVDC and
Darjeeling district of India, whereas groups of the
small herd were raiding from Jhapa to Udayapur
districts (about 200 km from east to west). Within 1.5
decades in the 5 districts, elephants demolished 277
houses and killed 66 people, and 23 elephants have been
killed. Wards 1 (half part), 2, 8, & 9, Wards 4, 1 (half
part), and 6, and Wards 3, 5, and 7 of Bahundangi VDC
were highly, moderately and low affected, and not
affected respectively. Economic losses of US$ 54,567.00
in 1999 and US$ 33,669 in 2001 were estimated.
Farmers mostly in Wards 2, 8, 9, 6 and 1 (half part) of
Bahundangi VDC who have elephant damage spend annually
US$ 175.90 to 228.60 US$ to deter elephants. About 43
percent of the farmers in BVDC believe that the
elephants is the symbol of God Ganesh which helps in
conservation of elephants. The government should make
compensation regulations regarding elephant damage. In
BVDC the best long-term solution to the problems is
shifting from current crop production to tea
cultivation, and subsidy by the government during the
transition period should be encouraged. Transboundary
cooperation with India should be formalized. In
addition, support for construction of infrastructure and
training of guards to prevent elephants from entering
cultivated fields, should be provided, and creation of a
new protected area, extension of an existing protected
area (Koshi Tappu Wildlife Reserve), and an action
research program could be implemented by the assistance
of international and national conservation partners. |
| |
Back to top |
| |
|
|
23. |
Twenty -year study of elephant conservation amongst
development in Sri Lanka’s Mahaweli Project |
| |
Jayantha Jayewardene |
| |
The Accelerated Mahaweli Development Programme (AMDP) is
a large and ambitious development project undertaken in
Sri Lankan starting in the early 1980s. This project
envisaged the development of 900,000 acres of land with
irrigation facilities. This was made up of 650,000
acres of new land and 250,000 acres of land that were
already irrigated but given supplementary irrigation.
Over 200,000 farmer families were settled in these newly
developed areas. A total of 500 megawatts of hydropower
is now being generated for industrial development and
rural electrification by the four dams that have been
constructed across the Mahaweli river, under this
programme. |
| |
The new lands had mostly small-scale
forest and scrub with small villages dotted here and
there. With the progressive clearing of the jungles it
became obvious that the flora in the area would be
destroyed and the fauna would lose their habitats. With
regard to the reptiles and lesser mammals this was not
too much of a problem in that they were able to inhabit
the small patches of jungle that were left when clearing
work was done. The bigger problem however was with
regard to the larger animals especially the elephant
whose habitat was being destroyed. |
| |
With the clearing of the jungles for the
implementation of the project, the habitats of the
elephant were greatly reduced. The advancing men and
bulldozers drove the elephants forward. Some were
pocketed in patches of ‘island’ forests. With many
families coming to live and cultivate in these newly
developed lands, both man and elephant came into
confrontation with each other. These confrontations led
to conflicts, which gradually became more and more
intense, finally ending in the deaths of both elephants
and humans. |
| |
Back to top |
| |
|
|
24. |
Human-elephant conflicts in southeastern
hilly areas of Bangladesh |
| |
M. M. Feeroz, M. A. Aziz, M. T.
Islam and M.A.Islam |
| |
Resident elephants are only found in
Chittagong, Chittagong-Hill-Tracts and Teknaf peninsula
of southeastern region of Bangladesh. A study has been
conducted on man-elephant conflicts in these areas
between June 2001 and May 2002. The study encompassed
the recording of deaths of both man and elephant and
making a quantitative assessment of the damage of crops
and property, and identifying the causes of conflicts.
Human–elephant conflicts manifested itself in a number
of ways. Direct costs to human include crop depredation,
injury and killing of humans, the injury and killing of
livestock’s and the destruction of the houses and other
properties. Indirect costs include social disruptions
and night spent awake trying to chase elephants from
crops. A total of 38 human deaths and 94 injured have
been recorded during the study period; the highest
number of kills occurred in February- May during paddy
crop season. The total economic loss caused by elephants
during the study period through feeding and trampling of
crops, food grains, orchards and other properties like
houses and farm installations amounted to Tk. 50,00,000
(around US $86,000). The highest economic loss comes
from paddy (46.98%), followed by houses (35.05%), stored
grains (13.50%) and commodities (4.47%). Three elephants
were killed and the local people grievously injured one.
Elephants are facing tremendous pressure since they are
alarmingly losing natural habitats with the increasing
demand for land for agriculture and developmental
activities to meet the needs of the people. The
underlying causes of man-elephant conflict in the study
area can be concluded as: i) encroachment and
cultivation within the elephant ranges ii) reduction or
fragmentation of natural habitats, iii) extension of
agriculture, iv) insufficient reserves for elephants, v)
influx settlements in and around the elephant ranges and
vi) insufficient efforts by the Govt. to conserve
elephants. The current forest management policy,
collection of plant produces by the local people,
political unrest in the area as well as negative
attitudes of local people towards elephant also put the
pressure to influence the elephants coming in contact
with people. For the mitigation of man-elephant
conflicts, establishment of more protected areas with
buffer zones, protection of existing reserves, qualified
and well-equipped staffs, development of eco-tourism,
compensation and awareness for the local people are
recommended. |
| |
Back to top |
| |
|
|
25. |
Human-elephant relationships and
conflicts in Myanmar |
| |
U.Aung Kyaw and U. Khin Mg Cho |
| |
Human-Elephant Relationship and Conflicts in Myanmar is
here briefed. As Myanmar is one of the high populated
countries of wild Asian elephant, she has a lot of
stories on human-elephant relationship and conflicts. |
| |
Relationship:
As Myanmar is well-known for her natural teak forests,
timber extraction has been done environmentally friendly
methods. It means that Myanmar has been widely using
elephant power. An official figure of 2000 said that the
sole agency for timber extraction in Myanmar, Myanma
Timber Enterprise, has 2715 and the number owned by
private is 1360, totally 4075 of domesticated elephant.
According to some survey, Myanmar still owns about 5000
in the wild. In some areas, tamed elephants are used for
transportation, drawing carts and even ploughing paddy
fields. |
| |
Conflicts: In spite of being a second largest elephant
population country in Asia, most of Myanmar elephant
habitats are considerably disturbed. In certain areas,
most of the regular movements have now been obviously
checked by a broad intervening band of cultivation, dams
and other developments. Lack of proper land use may
escalate man and elephant-conflicts. |
| |
Human-elephant conflicts usually occur in Yangon
Division, Mandalay Division, Ayeyarwady Division,
Tanintharyi Division, Rakhine State, Bago Division,
Kachin State and Sagaing Division. Out of fourteen
states and divisions, abovementioned eight sates and
divisions have prominent numbers of wild elephant.
According to the data collected by Nature and Wildlife
Conservation Division (NWCD), from 1998 to 2003 January,
92 times of conflicts happened in eight states and
divisions and 38 villagers were killed and 827 wild
elephants involved. |
| |
In those areas, driving back by public, by using smoke
of dry chilies and capturing were practised case by
case. Because of majority population believed in
Buddhism, Myanmar wild elephants have not been killed by
villagers yet. However, some poachers have been seized
in some areas. Nowadays, such illegal killing of
elephants becomes fewer and fewer owing to severe
punishments and co-operation of local people and
authorities. |
| |
Back to top |
| |
|
|
26. |
Getting Along with the neighbours: Human-Elephant
Relationships in Laos and the Potential for Conflict
Resolution |
| |
Khamkhoune Khounboline, Chay Noy
Sisomphane, Bounleuam Norachak, Thibault Ledecq, Arlyne
Johnson and Richard Salter |
| |
Wild Asian elephants are widely
distributed in Laos, and although numbers are much
reduced from historic levels, they remain relatively
abundant in some areas. incidents of human-elephant
conflicts, including crop raiding, attacks on humans,
and sometimes deaths of humans or elephants, regularly
occur. However, very little quantitative information is
available on elephant numbers, distribution, origins of
human-elephant conflicts, real costs of these conflicts,
or economic impacts at local, district, provincial or
national levels. Also, there are currently no formal
government policies or other guidelines on how to
systematically deal with conflict situations and
associated socio-economic impacts. |
| |
Human-elephant conflicts in Laos centre
on crop depredation by elephants who leave forested
habitat to feed in adjacent cropland areas. Analysis of
available information shows that human-elephant
conflicts are widespread in Laos and are probably
increasing. Case studies developed through field visits
to current conflict sites, and analysis of records of
human-elephant conflicts elsewhere in Laos, indicate
that a common feature of virtually all conflict sites is
incremental conversion of elephant habitats to crops
that are palatable to elephants, and/or an incrementally
increasing area of such crops directly adjacent to
forest areas occupied by elephants. Conflict development
is at an early stage as compared to neighbouring
countries. The social and economic costs at a national
level cannot be accurately determined from currently
available data; preliminary results from systematic
measurements of loss are available only from a recent
study on the Nakai Plateau. |
| |
A review of available mitigation
methodologies used elsewhere in Asia and in Africa
suggests that many are potentially suitable for
application in Laos, including: 1) methods for ensuring
elephant access to critical resources (maintenance of
remaining elephant habitats, land use planning to
minimize or prevent conflicts before they occur); 2)
methods for preventing elephants from entering
production areas (planting of unpalatable crops in main
field areas, habitat enhancement in areas distant from
croplands, noise-makers, fire and lights, repellents
and irritants, natural and electric fencing); and 3)
methods for managing impacts of human-elephant conflicts
(village relocation, compensation, insurance and credit
schemes, development of rapid response teams, training,
and reporting and record-keeping). |
| |
Back to top |
| |
|
|
27. |
Managing human/elephant conflict: the
Kenyan experience |
| |
Patrick Omondi, Elphas Bitok & Joachim Kagiri |
| |
An understanding of the interaction
between wildlife and people is important for
conservation. If the two have to co-exist, the level of
conflicts must be minimized using appropriate methods.
In Kenya, the elephant has had the largest impact on
human activities leading to severe human-elephant
conflicts. Kenya Wildlife Service has tried various
strategies to minimize conflicts and increase tolerance.
Electric fencing, translocation, establishment of
sanctuaries and Problem Animal Control activities etc
have been applied in various pressure points. This paper
highlights the experience gained in the last three
decades. |
| |
Back to top |
| |
|
|
28. |
Pixels, peoples, and elephants-predicting
people-elephant conflict from satellite imagery in
Southeast Asia |
| |
Peter Leimgruber and Chris Wemmer |
| |
Habitat loss and fragmentation are main
causes for people-elephant conflict in Asia. We have
used Geographic Information Systems (GIS) and Principal
Components Analysis (PCA) to evaluate habitat
fragmentation and its implications for people-elephant
conflict throughout Asia. We have identified three
fragmentation clusters from PCA. Cluster A contains
large ranges with unfragmented wildlands; cluster B
includes ranges with well-developed transportation
networks and large human populations; and cluster C
contains ranges with severely fragmented wildlands. By
combining these fragmentation data with coarse estimates
of Asian elephant population size we have identified
different regional patterns in people-elephant
conflict. In cluster A ranges with large elephant
populations, people-elephant conflict has been
traditionally low, but has been increasing significantly
during the past decade, due to agricultural land
conversions. In cluster B ranges with large elephant
populations, people-elephant conflict has been very high
traditionally and has changed little. Most other areas
have overall low levels of people-elephant conflict,
probably because elephant populations have been severely
decimated in the past. In a case study in Myanmar, we
demonstrate how land-cover change studies using Landsat
satellite imagery can predict future people-elephant
conflict zones in cluster A ranges. |
| |
Back to top |
| |
|
|
29. |
Traditional human-elephant conflict
mitigation measures in Transmara Kenya |
| |
Noah Sitati |
| |
Human-elephant conflict is a contemporary
elephant management and conservation problem that
threatens the future elephant conservation efforts.
Transmara District, adjacent to the Masai Mara National
Reserve, supports both the resident and migratory Mara
elephant populations. However, the districts high
potential for agriculture has experienced increasing
human population, both through reproduction and
immigration resulting in increased land conversion and
forest loss to farming hence escalating conflict. The
local people who bear the costs of conflict do not get
much support from Kenya Wildlife Service, the custodian
of wildlife in Kenya and rely entirely on traditional
mitigation measures. While some traditional mitigation
measures have been lethal to the elephants, they have in
turn developed aggressive behaviour towards people, who
equally have developed a negative attitude towards
elephants. This study aimed to identify the most
effective traditional mitigation methods for reducing
crop raiding. A multivariate comparison of raided and
non-raided farms revealed that guarding effort and
active defence methods were more effective at preventing
crop raiding than non-electrified barriers. However, it
was difficult to limit crop losses once raiding took
place. Big farms were more likely to be raided but were
less guarded. As farm size increased, barriers shifted
from traditional to more modern while guarding effort
declined. In contrast, actively defended farms had
greater damage. Area under farming destroyed increased
with farm size and elephant herd size but decreased with
increased guarding effort. Farmers should therefore
focus on elephant early warning systems and collective
defence of front line farms. Long-term mitigation will
rely on land use planning and the development of
alternative livelihoods. |
| |
The Trasmara human-elephant conflict
programme was initiated in 1998 by the Durrell Institute
of Conservation and Ecology (DICE), University of Kent,
UK, with funding from the Darwin Initiative for the
Survival of Species, World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF)
and the Kenya Wildlife Service’s Elephant Research Trust
Fund. The current Phase II of the programme is testing
the impact of early warning systems, communal guarding
strategies, frontline guarding and use of thunder
flashes and other deterrents in mitigating conflict. |
| |
Back to top |
| |
|
|
30. |
Community-based methods to reduce crop loss by elephants |
| |
FV Osborn |
| |
Human- wildlife conflict and specifically
crop losses to wildlife, continues to be a significant
constraint on rural development and conservation. Most
large mammals in tropical forest and savannah
ecosystems, such as elephants and primates, cause crop
destruction, and efforts to control crop loss by both
wildlife managers and farmers have generally been
ineffective. This paper focuses on the reasons
underlying this conflict, outlines some of the current
experimental non-lethal methods available to reduce such
losses, and examines the implications of this conflict
for rural communities and conservation agencies
attempting to address these issues in Sri Lanka. |
| |
Back to top |
| |
|
|
31. |
Human – elephant conflict: is capture a permanent
solution? |
| |
Vivek Menon, P.S. Easa, Nidhi Gureja and
Jacob V. Cheeran |
| |
Human-elephant conflict poses
conservationists with their greatest challenge yet to
save elephant populations in both Africa and Asia. Since
crop loss, property damage and occasional loss of life
are forms in which human beings are affected by the
presence of wildlife areas, the degree of success with
which conservationists solve this issue will determine
the future of wildlife conservation. Conflict is
inextricably linked to socio-economic development issues
and is therefore made all the more multi-faceted. A
multitude of methods are implemented worldwide as
mitigation to this conflict, including payment of
compensation, formation of watcher squads to chase the
elephants, digging trenches, erecting walls and power
fences, translocating humans and elephants and capturing
or killing problematic individuals. The success of most
of the preventive measures depends on several factors
including maintenance of the deterrents and the people’s
attitude and co-operation. The system of compensating
the people for their damage, practiced in most places
seems to be not a permanent solution. On the whole,
there is the threat of elephant getting habituated to
most of the deterrents. These measures are only
tolerance testing measures and do not actually address
the soul of the problem |
| |
The capture of ‘rogue‘ elephants, as a solution remains
a highly contentious issue among elephant experts. While
some experts argue that the removal of male elephants
identified as ‘habitual crop raiders’ or ‘rogues may be
the best form of population management considering the
inherent predisposition of adult bulls to raid compared
to females of a herd, with the least impact on
population demography, others argue that herds do just
as much damage, if not more, as bulls. The problem
arising from the presupposition that all raiders are
bulls, and vice versa is that it does not allow for the
correct identification of ‘rogues’ by managers. Under
pressure to solve the problem, random capture or killing
of elephants can occur and therefore, not necessarily
solve the problem, as not all elephants, herds or bulls,
will raid even if the opportunity exists. If on the
other hand capture of an individual is conducted within
a herd, the fission of the social unit may cause
aggression resulting in conflict. Furthermore, elephant
capture can only be conducted under the right conditions
depending on several factors. |
| |
This review paper examines case studies,
discusses the available mitigative measures and argues
that the elephant capture is not the method for reducing
the conflict. The authors suggest an integrated long
term approach to the problem based on the available
experiences and information. |
| |
Back to top |
| |
|
|
32. |
“Saving elephants by helping people” - lessons in
community integrated elephant conservation |
| |
Chandeep Corea |
| |
The Sri Lanka Wildlife Conservation
Society (SLWCS) has been developing a multi-pronged
approach to elephant conservation over the past six
years. This presentation is based on the information
gathered from these projects established by the SLWCS.
For the first time in Sri Lanka, the SLWCS advocated to
fence elephants “OUT” rather than “IN” inside national
parks. The project, Saving Elephants By Helping People
(SEHP) has erected solar powered electric fences around
two villages in the Wasgomuwa region. From the planning
stages to its implementation it was a bottom to top
management process. From tracing the fence line along
the village boundary to selecting a place to construct
the control room to when to start erecting the fence
were all done with the
direct input of the villagers. Almost
all of the non-technical work and some of the technical
and skilled work were also done by the villagers.
During the construction phase villagers were trained to
maintain, operate and do minor repairs of the fence.
Once a fence is completed the relevant villagers are
handed over the fence and they are given assistance to
establish a cooperative fence maintenance fund to meet
the operating expenses of the fence. Several designs of
electric fencing were compared to select the optimum
design that could withstand elephant attacks as well as
require a low maintenance expense. |
| |
By continuously evaluating our projects
and by concentrating on the social aspects of
conservation we have observed following: 1) though
electric fences solves the immediate problems of
reducing the destruction of homes, crops, human lives,
injury and death to elephants, it does not affect the
causes that contribute to human elephant conflict. 2)
Socio-economic surveys conducted at projects sites show
that most rural farmers are in an economic debt cycle.
3) As long as agriculture is the dominant industry
elephants will always pose a threat to the livelihood of
rural people. Therefore a more “wholeistic” approach is
needed to address and resolve most of these issues. It
is important to take into consideration the villagers,
elephants, field scientists, conservationists, and even
tourists to develop a sustainable approach for the
long-term resolution of human elephant conflict, for the
long-term conservation of the elephant. |
| |
Back to top |
| |
|
|
33. |
Empowerment of mahouts and captive elephants for wild
population and habitat conservation in northern Sumatra |
| |
Wahdi Azmi |
| |
Like in other Asian elephant range
countries, the fragmentation of elephant habitat in
Sumatra is a well-recognised problem. Habitat patches
are becoming smaller and more isolated from each other,
increasing the vulnerability of elephant populations.
Most of the current conservation/protected areas in
northern Sumatra are inadequate in their design to
effectively protect Sumatran elephants because they do
not protect prime elephant habitat. Most wild elephants
are present in blocks of forest outside of
conservation/protected areas, which invariably creates a
high potential for incidents of human-elephant
conflict. These issues reflect the failure of the
current land-use planning system to take into account
elephant habitat requirements and the long-term benefits
of forest conservation. |
| |
As a result of the escalating
human-elephant conflict in the 1980s the Indonesian
Directorate General of Forest Protection and Nature
Conservation (PHKA) ordered the capture of all wild
problem elephants and henceforth Elephant Training
Centres (ETCs) were established in six provinces
throughout Sumatra. In 2002, 482 elephants were in
captivity, most of them located in the government
managed Elephant Conservation Centres (ECCs) (new
terminology of ETCs). An unexpected result of the
capturing policy has been over-crowding in all ECCs in
Sumatra and has placed increased pressure on the natural
environment surrounding the ECC area. To add to this,
all the centres lack funds for medicines, elephant feed
and wages for the mahouts. Beyond these problems, the
ECCs have failed to demonstrate their role in the global
effort of in-situ elephant conservation which was a part
of their original purpose. |
| |
Conservation Response Units (CRUs) were
established as an alternative use of captive elephants
by providing a potential role in in-situ conservation
and improving the conditions for elephants in captivity
as well as their mahouts. The CRU project is composed
of six captive elephants rescued from Aceh’s ECCs and 9
of their mahouts, 6 government forest rangers, and 3 FFI
conservation officers spread over three CRU posts placed
in targeted working areas. Working in partnership with
local government, local communities and NGOs the CRU
project has 3 main aims: 1) mitigating human-elephant
conflict, 2) forest monitoring, 3) raising awareness
amongst local people of the importance of conserving
elephants and their habitat. |
| |
Working towards field based conservation
intervention; both captive elephants and mahouts have
been offered a new alternative future. Captive
elephants play an important role by providing
transportation during forest monitoring patrol
activities, as a tool for gaining local community
interest during awareness events and driving crop
raiding elephant populations should conflict incidents
arise. Mahouts, as part of the CRU team not only look
after the elephants, but are involved in all CRU
activities and have gained training in wildlife
observation techniques and basic use of navigation
devices and mapping. |
| |
Back to top |
| |
|
|
34. |
Status and management of elephants and their habitats in
Arunachal Pradesh, NE India |
| |
Chukhu Loma |
| |
The state of Arunachal Pradesh has a
geographical area of 83,743 Km2 and
is the largest state amongst the North Eastern states..
The forest cover is nearly 82% of the geographical area,
which is reported to be 68,847 sq.km. Roughly 20% of the
land area is considered Due to wide ranging altitudinal
variations from about 100mt. Msl at foothills in the
southern regions to over 7000 mt. Msl, there are a large
number of forest types.
The elephant populations here are mainly
distributed all along the foothills regions bordering
Assam. The forest type is semi-evergreen, evergreen,
subtropical rain forests etc. that provide food and
shelter to the pachyderms all throughout the year.
However it is not uncommon to find elephants between
2000-6000 m altitudes, and there is evidence that they
migrate higher up in search of food. The elephant
bearing districts are Papumpare, Lower Subansiri, West
Siang, East Siang, East Kameng, Lohit Dibang Valley,
Tirap and Changlang districts. The last census report
(2001) indicates that Arunachal Pradesh is the home of
about 1606 individuals with a male:female ratio includes
adults and sub-adults) is 1:1.91 and it indicates a
un-biased sex ratio. Elephant-human conflict is
increasing in Arunachal due to various anthropogenic
factors like habitat loss, enchroachment, degradation
and fragmentation. The current status of elephants and
their habitats will be presented. In addition I will
outline the various management steps, including the
creation of Elephant Reserves, the Government of
Arunachal Pradesh is taking to improve the conservation
status of elephants in the State. |
| |
Back to top |
| |
|
|
35. |
Asian elephant conservation in China: opportunities and
challenges |
| |
Li Zhang, Yongjie Li, Yigong Cao, Jianguo
Huang, Zhanqiang Wang |
| |
China’s once extensive Asian elephant
population has been drastically depleted in the extreme
southwest of Yunnan province, bordering Myanmar and
Laos, They exist in fragmented evergreen forests and
rain forests in three prefectures. It was estimated wild
population has been stable at about 200 to 250 over the
past ten years. More than 80% of the wild Asian elephant
population is found in the Xishuang Banna National
Nature Reserve, which was established in 1987, and
includes five sub areas covering 247,439 hectares. In
Lincang, Nangunhe National Nature Reserve is being
enlarged from the current 7,082 ha to more than 30,000
ha. There are still 15,000 local residents inside this
nature reserve. With IFAW’s support in Simao, the local
government reinstated a new five-year hunting ban and
established a new protected area with 65,300 ha of
forest for Asian elephants in the region. |
| |
The main threats to the elephants’
survival are: |
| |
1)Habitat Alteration and Reduction Caused
by Increased Human Activities. Most of the gullies and
valleys were reclaimed to plant rubber trees or other
crops since the 1960s. Many of the original forests were
cut massively for commercial profits before the logging
ban promulgated in 1998. In Simao, the main range for
elephants is outside the protected area, which does not
have enough efficient protection from the local
government. Explosive increases in human population
constantly pose threats to the integrity of the elephant
habitat. For example, the human population in Xishuang
Banna Nature Reserve alone increased from 12,000 in 1980
to over 20,000 in 1998, and primary forest in the region
is shrinking at a rate of 3,300 ha per year. The
situation is similar at other elephant ranges in China. |
| |
2)Human/Elephant Conflict. Since 1999,
elephants accidentally killed 2-3 people per year in
China, and a few locals were injured during encounters
with elephants since 1996. In the communities of all
elephant ranges in Yunnan, rice and buckwheat are the
crops affected most in open fields, and corn and banana
are the crops affected most on hill slopes. They are the
preferred food of the elephants. In Xishuang Banna, more
than 16,400 families in 38 townships have reported crop
and property damage caused by wild elephants and have
requested compensation from the government. According to
the management authority of the Xishuang Banna Nature
Reserve, approximately 7.88 million kilograms of crops
were lost, and 460,000 fruit trees were destroyed by
wild elephants in 2001. The total economic loss was
about $ 7.5 million US dollars per year since 2000.
Complains on crop raiding by elephant are increasing,
and elephants were hurt and scared by farmers are also
increased in the recent 10 years. |
| |
Building ecological corridors to connect
the fragmented habitats, taking measures to reduce the
human elephant conflicts, strengthening field study on
this species and environmental education are main
factors for the survial of elephants in China. |
| |
Back to top |
| |
|
|
36. |
Patterns of human-elephant conflict in Sri Lanka |
| |
E. Wickramanayake, H.S. Hathurusinghe,
H.K. Janaka, L.K.A. Jayasinghe, P. Fernando, and D.K.
Weerakoon |
| |
We conducted studies of human-elephant
conflict in the north-western (Mahaweli H zone &
Kahalle-Pallekele) and south-eastern regions (Yala
buffer zone) of Sri Lanka. The northwestern study areas
have had major land use changes in the past few decades
with large areas of elephant habitat being converted to
high human use areas through irrigated cultivation and
human settlements, in contrast, the south-eastern study
area has not had major land use changes and is dominated
by the Ruhunu protected area complex. |
| |
In the Mahaweli H zone, we selected 100
farmers from 50 villages and their cultivation was
monitored, recording the incidence of elephant
depredation and economic cost to farmers. The types of
damage were classified into damage to home gardens,
paddy fields and shifting cultivation. The highest
number of depredations was recorded in the category home
gardens, and the least number in the category shifting
cultivation. The highest economic loss was to paddy
fields, followed by home gardens. More than 80% of
depredations were due to solitary bulls or bull groups.
Most elephant deaths in a 10 year period were of males,
and the main cause was gun shot injuries. A trend of
increased elephant mortality towards the end of the
cultivation season was observed. |
| |
In a comparative study of people’s
perception and attitudes towards human-elephant conflict
in the north-west (Kahelle-pallekele) and south-east (Yala),
it was found that the perception of the conflict was
greater in Kahalle-Pallekele. The habitat heterogeneity
in Kahalle-Pallekele led to higher levels of conflict
while the large protected area complex in Yala provided
segregation of human and elephant habitat and led to
lesser levels of conflict. Traditional slash and burn
agriculture created good habitat for elephants and
allowed temporal and spatial resource partitioning
between elephants and people. |
| |
Irrigated agriculture was less conducive
to co-existence of humans and elephants, and led to high
levels of human-elephant conflict. Lack of a holistic
landuse strategy in concert with planned elephant
management and conservation has led to a high level of
human-elephant conflict to the detriment of both
elephants and humans. |
| |
Back to top |
| |
|
|
37. |
Can community solutions help? Experiences in developing
a “toolbox” |
| |
Ganesh Doluweera, Sanchitha Fernando,
Chandana Gunasekera, Arjuna Madanayake, Greg Rossel,
Lalith Seneviratne and Sasiri Yapa |
| |
Lack of unity and community spirit is a
major impediment to development and conservation in
human-elephant conflict areas. Yet, there is not enough
investigation of adapting technologically appropriate
solutions that can be community owned and maintained to
solve some of the pressing needs in such areas and
enhance the community spirit. Our group’s experiences so
far, in developing a “toolbox” of direct and indirect
sustainable solutions will be discussed in this
presentation. We chose two primary areas that best suit
our skills and interest and that are urgent needs of the
people and environment – Developing Rural
Electrification Systems for villages and Non-intrusive
Protection Systems against crop raiding elephants. The
protection systems, being of direct relevance to the
symposium will be presented, with an overview only of
electrification. |
| |
The first part of the presentation will
concentrate on successes, failures and pitfalls
encountered in developing several protection systems.
The protection systems started with early experiments in
seismic, laser and optical based elephant detection, and
finally led to a simple tripwire detection method. The
installation (or implementation) of a tripwire system
will be explained. An analysis of its performance
supported by data from the field as well as the opinions
of the farmers who use this method will be presented.
The formidable intelligence of the elephant as
demonstrated by the tactics it uses to circumvent the
system and how the system can be enhanced to beat such
tactics will be discussed. Electrification using
renewable energy and some of the models developed and
deployed will be discussed in brief, as an attractive
community unity building method that indirectly helps
conservation. |
| |
The second part of the presentation will
concentrate on another promising protection system under
research and development – Use of infrasound
vocalizations of elephants as a means of detection. Like
most animals, elephants rely upon a repertoire of
techniques to communicate among themselves. They range
from tactile and chemical to visual and auditory
methods. Auditory communications have the following
properties. Sound waves travel far and can be heard even
when there is no direct visual observation. Even lone
elephants make noises. Most importantly, it is the
easiest form of signal to acquire and analyze
automatically. None of the other forms of communication
possess all these properties. Then, can auditory signals
be used to detect elephants? We believe it is possible
and hence the focus of our research. It is well known
that a part of elephant vocalizations are in infrasonic
frequencies, too low for humans to perceive. Analysis of
these calls, reveal some interesting features. Calls
made by all elephants sound somewhat similar and there
appears to be a limited set of different calls.
Vocalizations of elephants are distinct from those of
other animals. We are attempting to build an affordable
system that will automatically identify elephants, using
their signature calls. For this purpose, we are adopting
techniques of Speech Recognition. The nature of calls
suggests that, simple methods of speech recognition
would suffice. Once the system is developed, it could be
used to remotely detect the presence of elephants,
provided they are vocal when approaching croplands. Is
this feasible? What are the underlying assumptions? What
are the pitfalls? At what stage of development are we
in? . The presentation will address these. |
| |
Back to top |
| |
|
|
38. |
Herbal drug treatment in Asian elephant (Elephas
maximus) |
| |
Chatchote Thitaram Jiradej
Manosroi and Aranya Manosroi |
| |
Herbal drug treatment has
been used in elephant in Thailand for a longtime. This
knowledge has been taught and transferred
from generation to generation in the “Kwan” (mahout).
Herbal drug administration in elephant can be by oral,
topical and rectal route. Several diseases or
abnormalities that affected each system in elephants
could be treated by herbal drugs. For instance; eye
infection and conjunctivitis was treated by Turmeric (Curcuma
longa, Linn.) and ventral edema caused from
abnormality of cardiovascular was treated by Cassumunar
ginger (Zingiber cassumunar, Roxb.). Diarrhea and
constipation were relieved by raw banana (Musa
sapientum, Linn.) and tamarind flesh (Tamarindus
indica, Linn.) mixed with Aloes (Aloe barbadensis,
Mill.) respectively. Chinese watermelon (Benincasa
hispida, (Thunb.) Cogn.) is fed and decreasing the
energetic food is performed in the musth elephant .
Giant’s rattle (Entada phaseoloides, Linn.) trunk
and Turmeric (Curcuma longa, Linn.) root were
used to treat fungal infection on elephant skin. The
mixtures in “Ya Fad” (Hitting drug) composed of Garlic (Allium
sativum, Linn.), Malay Paduak (Pterocarpus
indicus, Wild. Non Baker), Cayenne pepper (Capsicum
frutescens Linn.) and Onion (Allium cepa,
Linn.) were used to relief pain and inflammation by
boiling the drug and hitting the elephant by soaked
towel. Bleeding in elephant can be stopped by Eupolin (Chromolana
odorata, Linn.). The herbal drug can reduce the use
of expensive tablets or injections in elephant.
Furthermore, some drug may be excreted and effected to
environment. Hence, herbal drug treatment is the
alternative way of treatment in the huge creature like
elephant. |
| |
Back to top |
| |
|
|
39. |
Conflicts phenomenon of musth in captive
elephants |
| |
V. Meena |
| |
Sexually mature male elephants come into
musth annually characterized by elevated levels of
testosterone, drainage of fluid from the temporal
glands, dribbling of urine from the prepuce, and
aggressive behaviour. Musth phenomenon is thought to be
an important reproductive strategy adopted by bulls to
warn competing bulls and attract oestrus females. The
tradition and knowledge of elephant management and
healthcare dates back to as early as 4th
century BC, from when Asian elephants have been
maintained in captivity. The current management
practices are a combination of both traditional as well
as modern management practices. Musth is probably the
most challenging aspect of captive elephant management
and demands attention in all aspects of management –
daily routine, diet, use of specialized tools of
restraint etc. A study was undertaken to compare musth-management
practices in different elephant facilities of south
India and to compare periodicity, unique behavioural
changes of bulls during musth in relation to camp
management. Two forest-based elephant camps maintained
by the forest department of Tamil Nadu, South India were
chosen. Historically, elephants were maintained
in such facilities for timber hauling and other forestry
activity. Currently the elephants perform duties of
maintenance of the forest such as weed clearing, timber
dragging, and kumki work and for joy rides. A comparison
was made with the elephant camp maintained by the
Guruvayur Devaswom, Kerala, south India where
traditionally elephants have been part of all religious
ceremonies of the Guruvayur temple. |
| |
The daily routine, tools of restraint and
other management practices of forest department and
Gurvayur camp varied. In both camps, precautionary
measures are taken when bulls come into musth. Data on
regularity and incidence of musth of individual bulls
was found related to well balanced diet, physical
condition and nutrition, grooming, good understanding
and care by mahout. Interesting behavioural anecdotes,
aggressive interactions among bulls and with mahouts
were related to these factors. Thus regular annual onset
of musth, lasting three months, appears to characterise
a healthy bull. Isolation, tethering with special
chains of the musth bulls and understanding temperament
of the animal are important aspects of musth management.
Management practices are recommended for musth
management. |
| |
The organization is involved in research
and conservation of the Asian elephant. A manual on
captive elephant management including selection,
capture, training, management, nutrition, disease and
health care of elephants is under preparation. The book
will include several case studies provided by Dr.
Krishnamurthy and Dr.Cheeran, noted veterinarians in the
field with several years of experience in the care and
management of elephants. Was involved in compiling,
referencing and editing the material prepared. |
| |
Back to top |
| |
|
|
40. |
Management of musth in Pinnawala elephants |
| |
Rajapaksa R.C., Wijesinge, C.G. , Mendis G.U.S.P. |
| |
The Pinnawala Elephant Orphanage is the
conservation and breeding center for elephants in Sri
Lanka managed by the Department of National Zoological
Gardens. It was started in 1975 with four baby
elephants. Today there are 65 elephants including 25
male elephants. From these males, 4 elephants above the
age of 20 years show signs of musth annually. There are
two other elephants below 20 years show a mild temporal
secretion with a slight aggression called the “juvenile
musth” or “moda musth”. |
| |
Musth is a period of
physiological and behavioral changes in healthy adult
male elephants. According to the previous studies in
captive elephants in Sri Lanka musth follows the
withdrawal of the high levels of blood testosterone.
Whitish to colourless secretion of musth oozes out with
a characteristic odor from the temporal glands. Animals
become non- responsive to the commands and try to attack
the other animals and people, especially this aggression
is aimed towards their mahouts. |
| |
In the elephant orphanage onset of musth
can be identified by the absence of welcoming
vocalization and urination when the mahout approaches,
alarming frown on the face, disobedience to commands and
frequent touching of the oedematous temporal gland by
the trunk. When these signs are observed both fore legs
and one of the hind legs of the elephant are tethered
using very strong metal chains. Sufficient food and
water are provided with the help of another male
elephant. Erection of penis and masturbation can be
observed during first two three weeks of musth and
frequent urination continues throughout the musth
period. Some elephants are off food during the peak
musth. |
| |
Animals are thoroughly sprayed with water
twice a day and these animals are chained through out
the musth period. Sometimes they are tethered for one to
six months. Normally elephants develop musth from
October to April. |
| |
The common medical conditions are the
chain cuts. These wounds are sprayed with a combination
of topical antibiotics and fly repellants.
Pododermatitis and dependent oedema may develop with
poor management conditions. Obstruction of the temporal
gland is another complication and the animal must be
sedated and cleaned the temporal opening to facilitate
the oozing out of temporal secretions. |
| |
Proper management of elephants during
musth minimize the complications to elephants and
safeguard the mahouts getting injured by the aggressive
elephants. |
| |
Back to top |
| |
|
|
41. |
Prevalence of liver flukes in wild
elephants (Elephas maximus maximus) of Sri Lanka |
| |
Perera, B.V. P.,Rajapakse,
R.P.V.J. |
| |
The gastro-intestinal parasitism is one
of major problems leads to mortality and morbidity of
elephant calves and adults in Sri Lanka. Post mortem
examinations of wild elephants revealed that
fascioliasis is one of the major parasitic problems in
wild elephants of the country. Fascioliasis is reported
in many mammals and results in significant economic
losses in cattle, buffalo, sheep and goat all over the
world. However, information on elephant fascioliasis is
scanty. |
| |
The study was carried out from January
2000 to April 2003 (39 months). One hundred and fifty
two wild elephant postmortems were carried out in 06
districts (Pollonnaruwa, Anuradapura, Ampara,
Trincomalee, Batticcalo, Matale), naturally inhabited by
the wild elephants in the country. The liver was
examined for the presence of adult liver flukes in 47
elephants and these postmortems were performed within 48
hours from the time of death. Adult Flukes were
identified visually and the species was determined
through laboratory investigations. The severity of the
parasitic infestation in the affected animals was
accessed by considering the total number of flukes in
the liver. In addition, laboratory investigations for
the presence of fluke eggs were carried out for 48 dung
samples from the living wild elephants. |
| |
Age categories of study population were
04 calves (1-5 yrs), 01 juvenile (5-10 yrs), 08
sub-adults (10 – 20 yrs), 29 adults (20 – 40 yrs) and 05
prime adults (>40 yrs). Sex ratio male:female was 35:12.
Causes of their death were gun shot associated wounds
leading to septicemia (21), gun shot associated severe
injuries to the brain or lung (07), deaths due to
electrocution (09), incidences of drowned animals (01),
obstruction of airways 01, presence of severe pneumonia
(02), fasciola associated parasitism (02), old age with
severe debility (01) and a dead animal in which a cause
could not ascertained (01). Presence of liver flukes in
the elephants was determined in the laboratory as the
Fasciola jaksoni, of which the average size 12 – 14
mm x 9 – 12.5 mm. There were 27 animals infected with
the fluke from all the age categories. The severity of
the infestation was very varied as the most severe – 02
(>100 flukes), moderate – 04 (50 – 100 flukes), mild –
07 (10 – 50), and low – 14 (<10) animals. It was clear
that the severity of the infection was higher in weaker
animals rather than in healthy animals.
Histopathological changes in the affected liver tissue
were cholangitis and fibrous tissue proliferation of the
wall of the bile duct. Sixty percent of examined dung
sample were harboring the eggs of F. jaksoni. |
| |
There are over an average of 150 wild
elephant deaths per year reported in Sri Lanka. Majority
of deaths were due to the direct result of existing
human-elephant interactions. Many elephant deaths are
recorded from the areas where the human accessibility is
intense, and possibilities of missing the natural and
infectious deaths are comparatively high. In this study,
it was shown that the fascioliasis is a very important
parasitic disease as far as the health of the wild
elephants is considered. This shows the necessity of
further studies to reveal the life cycle in our local
habitats, combined with phylogenetic relations with
other parasites of F. jacksoni. Further, detailed
studies related to path-biological impacts to the
elephant in relation to fascioliasis will also bring out
useful information regarding the infection to the
elephants. |
| |
Back to top |
| |
|
|
42. |
Interpretation of wildlife diseases as
a manifestation of human-elephant conflict at Waynad
wildlife sanctuary- Kerala |
| |
Jacob V. Cheeran, Arun Zechariah, Subhash, C.K.& Eswaran,
C. K. |
| |
Waynad
wildlife sanctuary is situated in Kerala, south India
with an area of 344.44 sq. kms. The terrain is
undulating with low hills; altitude varying from 800m to
1100m.Natural vegetation in this area is classified as
South Indian moist mixed deciduous forests and southern
mixed deciduous forests. (Champion and Seth, 1968).
Nagarhole and Bandipur national parks of Karnataka state
and Mudumalai wild life sanctuary of Tamil Nadu state is
continuous with the Wynad sanctuary. |
| |
All the major wild life of the Western
Ghats can be found here and the elephant is the primary
larger herbivore species. Density of elephants in all
the regions showed annual differences. The estimate
ranges from 1.02/ sq. kms to 1.35/sq.kms in southern
region. It was 0.25 to 0.92 in northern and 0.53 to 0.85
in the central part of the sanctuary. However a heavy
migration of elephants is noticed during the summer
seasons from the adjoining national parks and
sanctuaries. Varman at al (1995) reported a decrease in
density of elephants in the adjacent Mudumalai during
dry season and an increase in the subsequent wet season.
The drying up of water sources in Mudumalai and Bandipur
areas along with frequent occurrence of fire could be
the factors leading to a higher density of elephants in
the southern regions of the sanctuary. There are about
61 settlements in and around the sanctuary. They are
located mostly in the buffer zones as well as core zone
occupying major natural water sources. The important
occupations of the settlers are agriculture and cattle
rearing. Important cultivations include paddy, banana,
coconut etc. and thus leading serious elephant human
conflict. Apart from this, the settlers maintain around
3000 cattle and the sharing of common grazing grounds
poses considerable health problems in elephants. The
mean annual rainfall varies from 1400 to 2500 cms. |
| |
A sharp decrease in the rain fall has
been observed during the last ten years thus aggravating
the situation, producing stress leading to diseases and
mortality especially in the larger herbivores. This
paper deals with the stress on the elephant population
from human settlements in and around the sanctuary by
interpreting mortality rate and disease reports. |
| |
Back to top |
| |
|
|
43. |
Aspects of elephant management in the future |
| |
Harald M. Schwammer |
| |
Continued successes in
elephant breeding can be expected in Europe based on new
elephant facilities that are being planned or already
under construction. |
| |
Nonetheless, elephant keeping was the
target of an aggressive campaign by the RSPCA,
spearheaded by two scientists from Oxford University (A
Review of the Welfare of Zoo Elephants in Europe). This
paper disqualifies itself through its unscientific
methodology and frivolous conclusions. |
| |
A range of handbooks on elephant
management are available in different parts of the
world, each tailored to the specific uses in those
regions, ranging from zoo elephants to working animals
in Asia. Certain issues, however, remain the same
everywhere and form the focus of present discussions. |
| |
Increase in fatal
accidents and various safety aspects. Management
decisions for keeping, ranging from direct contact,
protected contact and hands off approaches. Herpes, TB,
pox and salmonellosis. Reproduction strategies for
breeding groups.
Training of elephant keepers, mahouts,
veterinarians and curators. |
| |
These discussions give rise to
fundamentally new management programs that cover the
full range of elephant keeping issues from safety
standards to management of births. Such a concept has
also been developed in Vienna’s Schönbrunn Zoo. Vienna
focuses on research and training. The former involves a
holistic research project on the keeping, breeding and
development of the animals with an ethological emphasis.
The training aspect involves a range of workshops and
courses. |
| |
The target groups are elephant keepers,
mahouts, along with veterinarians and curators. The
concept treats the full range of topics from facility
design, foot and skin care, breeding management, safety
aspects, veterinary routines, artificial insemination,
herpes, TB, pox, salmonellosis, and basic training
routines. Special veterinary routines such as the taking
of blood samples, x-ray technology, and ultrasound
investigations are part of the curriculum. |
| |
Back to top |
| |
|
|
44. |
Green hunting as an alternative to lethal
hunting |
| |
Greyling, M.D., M. McCay & I. Douglas-Hamilton |
| |
Private nature reserves and adjoining
large national parks such as the 2 000 000 ha Kruger
National Park (KNP), not only need to function as
integrated ecological units but also need to be
financially viable to support efficient management
practices. The Association of Private Nature Reserves (APNR),
on the western boundary of the KNP encompass an area of
180 000 ha and form one of the largest private nature
reserves in the world. These reserves still contain some
of the remaining large tusked bulls which periodically
emigrate from the KNP. As hunting is permitted within
the APNR, trophy bulls are of economic importance to the
reserves. Green hunting of elephant bulls was pioneered
within the Timbavati Private Nature Reserve in 1998.
Green hunting offers an alternative to lethal hunting
without depleting the gene pool whilst also contributing
financially towards the management of the APNR. As a
consequence of the green hunts, bulls are fitted with
satellite collars which provide information that will
not only contribute towards our knowledge of dispersal
as a population regulation process but will also lead to
an understanding of whether social-, safety- or
nutritional benefits motivate. |
| |
Back to top |
| |
|
|
45. |
Towards a rational, scientific elephant management and
conservation strategy |
| |
P. Fernando, M.D. Gunawardene, H.S.
Haturusinghe, H.K. Janaka, L.K.A. Jayasinghe, R.A.R.
Perera, K.P.A. Samansiri, A. Sandanayake, and D.K.
Weerakoon and E. Wickramanayake |
| |
The main proximal threat to elephant conservation in Sri
Lanka is the human-elephant conflict. The population
history of elephants in Sri Lanka can be divided into 4
eras: prehistoric, ancient civilization, colonial and
post-independence. Throughout these periods, humans
have had a major influence on the distribution and
population size of elephants. Current management
practices devolve on the premise that all elephants
should be restricted to protected areas. However, this
view does not take into account the ecological and
biological parameters of elephants. Previous and current
management interventions for management have been based
on declaring protected areas and elephant corridors,
translocations and electric fencing. However, the
success of these interventions in mitigating the
human-elephant conflict has been limited and their use
without regard to ecological and biological factors may
be detrimental to elephant conservation over the long
term. In view of the results from our studies on
elephant ranging patterns, habitat use, social
organization, genetics, and human-elephant conflict, we
suggest that elephant management needs to be conducted
on a scientific basis and that a landscape approach
needs to be taken for successful conservation of
elephants and mitigation of human-elephant conflict. |
| |
Back to top |
| |
|
|
